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Belief and concepts
Introduces the beliefs, ideals and traditions of the Hindus, a heterogeneous people, who can trace their faith back to a civilization that existed over 4,000 years ago. The beliefs and customs that indiaMystica deals with are those encountered in everyday life. We feel the need to delve into such a subjective and potentially controversial area, Because understanding the How, What and why of many customs and practices can only happen with reasoned information. Hinduism is a blanket term for a staggering range of concepts and 'levels' of thought. It is also a pulsating record of the cultural evolution of 80 percent of the world's largest democracy and the millions-strong Hindu Diaspora that pervades almost all continents. Many Hindu practices and beliefs astound with their scientific and humane relevance. Others seem superstitious and illogical. Nevertheless, it is interesting to understand why those who went before us acted in a particular - often apparently contradictory-way. Flowers, fasts, feasts, adornment, rites of passage, sacred scriptures, deeply felt environmental and social values. Beliefs and Concepts that are generally followed but do not pertain to a particular ceremony or time.
| Everybody likes ornaments to adorn themselves. Especially
ladies like adorning each part of the body. There is a tradition in most
of the part of the world. Even Adiasis also have their own ornaments
made from wood. bones,stones and things. Traditional a married Indian
woman had in her cachet a wealth of adornments. Passed down to her
through generations were the formalized yet unwritten laws of solah
singar, sixteen adornments or basic make up norms.
The meaning of bhushana is to adorn and Abhushan means the ornaments or things, which is used to adorn. Where health maintain the physical beauty, Abhusana enhances it. There is a special scientific reason to wear ornaments. Each has their special effect on the body and mental & physical health. The material does matter for ornaments because they are made from different material like gold, silver, platinum etc. some times pearls, diamonds, gems stones are attached to it. Mainly gold and silver are used as a row material to making ornaments because the effect of silver is cold and gold hot. Both metals reduce the chances of cancer and balance the blood circulation. Astrology says that there is a special influence for every ornament for every people. Not only that it is also important that where it to wear. According to them the effect of planets has great influence to person’s mental, physical health and environment.
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Bindi is derived from bindu, the Sanskrit word for dot. It is usually a red dot made with vermilion powder, which is worn by women between their eyebrows on their forehead. Considered a symbol of Parvati, a bindi signifies female energy and is believed to protect women and their husbands. Traditionally a symbol of marriage (vivaha), it has also become decorative and is worn today by unmarried girls and women as well. Widows however, usually do not wear a bindi.
No longer restricted in colour or shape, bindis are seen in many bright colours and in different shapes and designs. They are also made of coloured felt and embellished with coloured glass or glitter.
This is a thick, black, ointment, made of ground lead sulfide or antimony sulfide, which is used as an eye liner, a coolant, and protector against the evil eye.
Kajal is usually applied with a fingertip on the inner rim of the lower eyelid and sometimes on the upper lid as well. Though traditionally used by both men and women, today largely women use kajal. However children of both sexes are made to use kajal as a coolant and to protect them from evil. Indeed Indians of all ages and faiths use it for these reasons.
From the time a child is six days old, its mother applies kajal to its eyes and also a small black dot on the forehead to mar the child's beauty. This 'imperfection' is said to protect from evil.
Kajal can be made at home by mixing the soot of an oil lamp with clarified butter, while commercially it is available in small boxes or as pencils.
Flowers are considered symbolic of life and happiness and are therefore an important aspect of any worship. Each deity is believed to have a favorite flower, which, if offered in worship, adds merit to the prayer. Usually, fragrant soft-petalled flowers are offered in worship. Red flowers are usually offered to female deities.
Traditionally, showering honored people with flower petals was an accepted form of demonstrating respect. Kings, heroes and sages were honored in this manner. Even today, a traditional welcome or farewell is incomplete without flowers.
This practice is also evident in the course of the wedding ceremony (see Vivaha). Showering petals is also a form of blessing, as at the end of the ceremony, when all those present shower the Flowers bride and groom with petals. In the southern part of India, an important part of a woman's toilette is flowers in her hair.
Mehendi or henna (Lawsonia inermis) is a small tropical shrub. Its leaves and shoots, when ground into a paste, give out a rust-coloured pigment. This is used as a hairdye and as a cosmetic to make intricate designs on the palms and feet. Apart from its colour, henna also has a pleasing fragrance and a cooling effect.
Henna's auspicious reddish colour merits its use during all ceremonies related to marriage and married women. It denotes the prosperity that a bride is expected to bring to her new house and is a part of the 16 traditional adornments, with a special ceremony of its own, simply called Mehendi. A day before the wedding, all the friends and relatives of the bride gather together, and the dark green paste of henna leaves is applied in decorative designs to the bride's palms and feet. The paste can be made by grinding fresh leaves, or by powdering dried leaves and then mixing the powder with water. A professional is usually called upon, for the
Process is almost an art form. The henna paste is squeezed through the tip of a cone and by systematically moving the cone, the designs are 'drawn'.
After this, the paste must be allowed to dry until it becomes hard and crusted. This takes three to four hours. During this time, the bride must sit still. She gets some much-needed rest and listens to the advice of friends and relatives who are also participating in this ceremony. Because of its cooling effect, henna also calms the bride's nerves. After it dries, it is washed off or scraped off with the help of a blunt knife, leaving a dark rust imprint, which stays for about a week. After the wedding, the bride is not expected to do any domestic work till her henna fades.
Apart from weddings, henna is also applied during the various vratas observed by married women. It is very popular with both men and women as a conditioner and dye for the hair. Packets of powdered henna are commonly sold by grocers. There are two popular beliefs associated with henna. The first is more a social superstition. According to this belief, the unmarried girl who receives henna scrapings from a bride will herself be married soon (a similar superstition exists about a Christian bride's bouquet). The other belief about henna is that the darker the imprint left on the bride's palms, the more her mother-in-law will love her. This was probably devised to instill patience in the bride: to make her sit still for the henna to dry as well in dealing with her new family.
Vermilion, powdered red lead, applied as a dot on the forehead, like the regular 'bindi or in the parting of the hair by all suhagans. It is worn by married women, as a visible expression of their desire for their husbands' longevity. Traditionally therefore, widows did not wear vermilion.
Red is the colour of power. Vermilion is thus a symbol of the female energy of Parvati and Sati. Sati is believed to be the ideal wife, one who gave her life for her husbands' honour. Every Hindu wife is supposed to emulate her. It is believed that Parvati protects all those men whose wives apply vermilion to their hair parting.
Sindoora is applied for the first time to a woman during the marriage ceremony when the bridegroom himself adorns her with it . Sindoora-dana, as this part of the marriage ceremony is called, is important today but is not mentioned before the Grihasutras indicating that it is a relatively new practice.
Gold ornaments are popular becausethe metal is believed to have the power purify anything it touches. Ornaments of gold and other metals, often combined with precious and semi-precious gems and beads, are popular with both men and women. Most ornaments are common across India, with variations in designs and material depending upon caste, religion, and geography. Gold is the most popular metal because it is believed to have the power to purify whatever it touches. For this reason, some gold ornament is usually worn against the skin at all times. Today ornaments are more popular with women than men, though, as paintings and sculptures attest men were once lavishly adorned too. In fact, the use of ornaments in India dates back to the ancient civilisations at Harrapa and Mohenjodaro.
Traditionally, ornaments had economic significance for women. The ornaments given to her at her wedding constituted a daughter's inheritance from her father. Customarily land and other property was divided among the sons, though this no longer holds true. In addition, a bride's ornaments were financial security throughout her life.
Nose pin: More common than a nose ring, both are symbols of purity and marriage, though today many unmarried girls wear this adornment.
Necklace: These are popular across the country among girls and women of all ages. Necklaces are made of a variety of materials, ranging from glass beads to gold and diamonds. One special necklace, however, is the mangalasutra, worn only by married women. It is the Indian equivalent of the western wedding ring. Traditionally a woman wore it during her wedding ceremony and took it off only if her husband died. A lot of emotion and superstition focus on the mangalasutra.
Bangles: Worn on the wrist, bangles are believed to be protective bands and women always wore them as symbolic guards over their husbands. As with other ornaments, bangles today are worn by women of all ages all over India and are made of silver, gold, wood, glass, and plastic, among other materials.
Most married women wear glass bangles. However, in the eastern state of Bengal, they wear one shell bangle, called shakha, and one coral bangle, called paula, on each hand as a symbol of marriage. In the west, a bride from Punjab wears a set of ivory bangles on each hand for 21 days, six months, or a year after marriage, depending on family tradition. And a Rajasthani woman wears ivory bangles from her wrist to her upper arm for the rest of her life or till her husband is alive, although now this is rare.
Ear rings: Rings, studs and other ornaments worn in the ears are popular all over the country. In fact, a girl's ears are usually pierced before her first birthday. Some ear ornaments are specifically worn by married women. For instance in the northern state of Kashmir, suhagans suspend gold earrings on long red threads from a hole pierced in the upper part of the ear. These earrings are called ateheru.
Other important ornaments are finger rings, toe rings and anklets. Rings for the fingers are again, of various materials and designs and worn by unmarried and married women. Since the ring has become a common adornment, it is no longer considered a symbol of marriage
However, toe rings and anklets are still worn mostly by married women. Ornaments for the feet are usually made of silver because gold, being a 'pure' metal, was not supposed to be worn on the feet. This privilege was given only to women of royal families.
In addition to these ornaments is the 'mangatika' or 'tikli'. This ornament, worn at the top of the forehead in the parting of the hair, is usually a small pendant on the end of a chain that is clasped to the hair. Although traditionally this ornament was also worn as a symbol of marriage, today it is not so commonly worn even by married women.
Nowadays, it is usually reserved for very special occasions. Traditionally, ornaments were considered a symbol of marriage and a widow did not adorn herself. Although this custom is still widely followed today, its observance is not strictly required.
Mangalasutra or thread of good will is a necklace worn specifically by married women as a symbol of their marriage.
Initially it was a thread that a bride and groom tied on each other signifying their union in good will. Now, the groom ties it around his bride's neck to indicate that he receives her from her father.
The most common Mangalasutra is made of two strings of small black beads with a pendant, usually of gold. The black beads are believed to act as protection against evil (see Nazar Utarna). Married women wear this to protect their marriage and the life of their husband. In southern India, the Mangalasutra is called 'tali'. It is a small gold ornament, strung on a cotton cord or a gold chain.
Traditionally, a married woman never removed her mangalasutra. If she became a widow, it was cut off. Nowadays however, this custom is not strictly applied, and not all married women wear a mangalasutra.
Puja is believed to be derived from the Dravidian word 'pu-chey', (flower action) or worship with the offering of flowers. Some trace it to the Dravidian word 'pusu', to anoint or smear with sandalwood paste or vermilion.
The term puja is now used to include all forms of ceremonial worship, ranging from the simple daily offerings of flowers, fruit, leaves, rice, sweetmeats and water to the deities in homes or temples, to the sacrifices of goats and chickens in temples dedicated to Kali, Durga and other female deities. This rite is performed, in its bloodless form, by all pious Hindus at least once a day.
There are three kinds of pujas: great, intermediate and small. A great puja is usually a community affair or performed during important occasions like religious festivals. This puja comprises of these steps:
Avahana - the invocation of the deity. Asana - a seat is offered to the deity.
Svagata - the deity is welcomed, asked Honour, worship, reverence.' to anoint or smear with sandalwood paste or vermilion. Puja about his journey and whether he faced any problem coming to the place of puja.
Padya - the feet of the deity are washed with water.
Arghya - a respectful offering of water is made to the god. This water is laced with sandalwood paste, vermilion and rice.
Achamania - water is then offered for washing the face and mouth of the deity.
Madhu-parka - a beverage made of honey, sugar, and milk is offered to the deity.
Snanajala - the deity is offered water for bathing. Bhushana
abharanasya - clothes jewels and ornaments are offered next. Gandha - sandalwood paste or any other fragrant object is offered. Akshata - grains of rice mixed with vermilion are offered.
Pushpanjali - flowers are offered.
Dhupa - incense is lit.
Dipa - the lamp is lit.
Naivedya - rice, fruit, butter and sugar are offered next.
Visarjana - the deity is finally bidden farewell.
At the end, arati is performed. An intermediate puja includes the steps from madhu-parka to naivedya and is performed during fasts or birthdays of deities. A small puja involves the steps from gandha to naivedya and is performed everyday. All pujas end with arati.
The object of performing the puja in this manner is to treat the deity as one would a guest, with honour and respect. In temples, the deities are treated as kings.
Though the steps of worship are the same for all deities, there is some difference in the puja of each. For instance, the kind of flowers offered is different for each deity.
Presently, a puja might also involve japa or meditation. A very important part of any puja is the applying of tilaka and the distribution of prasada to devotees.
A worshipper is required to be pure of body and mind. The Puranas lay more stress on the quality of devotion and good behavior than on rigid puja procedures.
Puja originated as a substitute to homa and other Vedic sacrifices which could not be performed by women and Shudras and which required animal sacrifices. Due to Dravidian , Buddhist and Jain influences which preached non-violence, the killing or sacrifice of animals was discontinued and with the development of iconography, idol worship and puja took the place of sacrifice. It was also recognized that worship was essential for all, whatever the gender or caste and therefore puja was formalised as a universal option instead of the exclusive homa.
This mystic symbol is also the most powerful Hindu mantra. It is composed of five elements: the syllables a, u, m, the dot or bindu and sound (nada), and is revered as the representative of the gods. All aspects of speech are believed to have come forth from this word.
Om first appears in the Upanishads as a mystic monosyllable and is regarded as the seed or basis of all mantras. According to the Mandukya Upanishad, the past, present and the future are all included in this one sound and all that exists beyond these three forms of time is also implied in it. In fact this entire Upanishad deals with the understanding and symbolism of Om.
According to the Chandogya Upanishad, Prajapati created the first three Vedas, from which arose the three letters of 'aum'. This word is therefore a representation of the Supreme Being. Like the word Om, the Supreme Being is also indivisible.
Om is said to be the first sound to have come from the creator's mouth. Its sound is said to be the foundation of all sounds. It represents the whole phenomenon of sound producing and denotes all the possibilities of all the sounds that can be produced. 'A' is the root sound produced without touching any part of the tongue or palate, 'm' represents the last sound in the series, being pronounced by closed lips. Between these two sounds exist all others. The three constituents of Om also represent the deities of the Trimurti: 'a' represents Vishnu, 'u' Shiva and 'm' Brahma. Hence it also represents creation, preservation and destruction. The Vaishnavas and the Shaivas however describe it according to their own theological notions. The sound form of Om is identified as Vishnu by Vaishnavas and as Shiva by Shaivas.
The Shiva Purana claims that 'aum' arose from the five faces of Shiva. 'A' from the north, 'u' from the west, 'm' from the south, bindu from the east and sound from the middlemouth.
Because of this mystic importance, Om is uttered at the commencement of all prayers and religious ceremonies and at the beginning of all mantras. Om is also the mantra that yogis meditate with. Saying it aloud at the beginning or end of a lesson on Veda ensures that the student retains the knowledge imparted. Its utterance is said to counteract errors in the performance of sacrifices and protects the devotee against misfortune. Meditation on this sacred syllable is said to satisfy every need and leads to liberation.
This syllable was not allowed to be uttered by Shudras and women. The 'twice-born' (see Upanayanam) had to say it softly lest someone hear they considered unworthy. This is no longer the case and today, Om can be uttered by anyone. Om is now freely depicted on calendars, mandalas and even written at the head of letters, wedding invitations, doctoral. theses and any important document. It has even found its way into popular film music and though no longer sacrosanct, is more potent than ever as the best known, most used symbol of Hinduism.
Arati Painful occurrence, injury,mischief, sickness. It is the most important ritual and is performed during almost all ceremonies and occasions. It involves the waving of an 'Arati plate' around a person or idol and is generally accompanied by the singing of songs in praise of that deity or person.
The arati plate is generally made of metal. On it must repose a lamp made of
kneaded flour, mud or metal, filled with oil or ghee. A cotton wick is put into
the oil and then lighted, or camphor is burnt instead. The plate also contains flowers,
incense and akshata.
The purpose of performing arati is to ward off evil effects and the malefic influence of the 'evil eye' (see Nazar Utarna). Arati is hence performed on people of high social or economic status; small children during various ceremonies (see Sanskara); on people who are going on or are coming back from a long journey; on a bride and bridegroom when they enter their house for the first time; on grain (if one has had a good harvest); on animals or anything else of importance. It is also performed on newly acquired property, like a house or a tractor.
It is believed that the idol of a deity too is susceptible to the evil eye, and needs regular arati, with the singing of special arati songs. These songs laud the glory of the deities and describe the benefits that one might gain by praying to them.
Sometimes they also contain snippets of information on the life of the gods. Arati songs are particular to each deity. The most commonly sung arati is that to Vishnu. In most temples in India, arati is performed at least twice a day, after the ceremonial puja, which is the time when the largest number of devotees congregates.
While arati is being performed, the officiating priest waves the arati plate over the image of the deity. In doing so, the plate itself is said to acquire the radiance and the power of the deity.
The priest then takes the plate around to all those present as prasada. Arati The devotees cup their downturned hands over the flame and then raise their palms to their forehead. By doing this, it is believed that the purificatory blessing, passed from the deity's image to the flame, has now been passed to the devotee.
Ashram or ashram is derived from cram meaning "to exert or labor". Ashram refers to a stage or phase in the life of a "twice-born" Hindu (see Upanayanam). There are four accepted ashrams.
These are Brahmacharya, for studying; Grihastha as a married man and householder; Vanaprastha, for performing penance in a forest; and Sanyasa, for renouncing worldly attachments.
According to the Manusmriti, the span of a human life is 100 years. Every Hindu man was to spend a part of his life in each of the four ashrams to fulfill his obligations: to the sages by studying, to his ancestors by raising male progeny, to the gods by performing penance and sacrifices, and for the salvation of his soul (see Moksha) by renouncing the world. This was assuming, of course that he lived his full life span.
In the Brahmacharya ashram, the adolescent is a celibate, religious student, called a brahmachari. After his. Ashram Upanayanam, a boy should live with and be devoted to his guru, and study the Vedas. He should live simply and humbly, follow the requisite customs, fast (see Vrata), and worship the gods. A student should study, practice penance, and tend the sacrificial fire . This stage lasts for 12 years after the Upanayanam. However, if a student wishes to attain higher knowledge, he can continue in this stage until he is 31 years old. After completing his studies, the student gives guru dakshina and enters the next stage: the Grihastha ashram.
Grihastha means "householder". This stage begins with marriage (see Vivaha). The duties of a man in this phase of life include raising children, caring for the family, performing the five daily sacrifices and being a responsible member of society. He remains a Grihastha until his son's son is born, his hair has turned grey, or when he is about 50 years of age. Thereafter he enters the Vanaprastha
As a Vanaprastha, a man lives in the forest, away from society, and prepares to renounce the world.
Vanaprastha means, " forest dweller". This stage indicates the beginning of old age. Living away from society in the forest, he should live simply, perform sacrifices, and prepare to renounce all worldly associations. These austerities are treated as penance for the sins committed, knowingly and unknowingly, as a householder. A man may take his wife to live with him in the Vanaprastha ashram, in which he stays until he is 70 years of age. He then returns from the forest and a purification ceremony initiates him into the Sanyasa ashram.
In this last phase, a man renounces wealth and worldly pleasures, and is called a sanyasi. He is completely detached from the rest of the world giving up even those family ties allowed in Vanaprastha. Instead, he seeks alms from householders and spends his time meditating, in an effort to achieve salvation (see Moksha). This division of a man's life into different
Ashram phases followed a practical rationale. In the earlier part of his life, a man is more open to ideas and instruction, since his thoughts have not yet taken a definite shape. His energies and capabilities are unused and can be best-channeled into learning, as in the Brahmacharya ashram. The next 25 years are spent in the Grihastha ashram, where a man uses the knowledge he gained as a student to live a complete life and enjoys worldly pleasures without a sense of guilt. After 50 years, the physical senses become weaker but inner strength increases. Satiated with the world, a man turns to the spiritual aspects of life in the Vanaprastha ashram. He goes on pilgrimages and slowly detaches himself from worldly affairs. After a point, he realizes that all attachments, even to his wife, are no longer necessary, and he has the ability to completely isolate himself mentally from the world. This marks the Sanyasa ashram, which is the last stage in a man's life.
The word brahmachari occurs in the Rig-Veda and Atharva Veda (see Veda), indicating that the system of ashrams dates back to the Vedic period.
There is controversy over which castes (see Varna) were supposed to follow the ashrams. According to some texts, the system was only for the Brahmins, while other sources say that any caste except the Shudras could practice it. Women, of any caste, were not permitted to follow this system. From childhood, they were taught how to keep a good home. The only ashram they observed was the Grihastha ashram.
There are three schools of thought about the observance of ashrams: Sammucchya or orderly co-ordination; Vikalpa or option; and Badha, annulment or contradiction. Sammucchya prescribes that a man should follow the four ashrams in order. Manu is the chief supporter of this view. The Vikalpa School preaches that a man can become a sanyasi immediately after the Brahmacharya Ashramashram or after the Grihastha ashram. But one can only become a sanyasi after studenthood if one has mastered control over one's senses and desires. The Vikalpa School does not consider Vanaprastha ashram a separate stage. This view is expounded in the Jabala Upanishad. The Badha school is held by the Gautama Dharmasutra and Baudhayana Dharmasutra (see Sutra). Followers of this school believe that there is just one ashram: the Grihastha ashram. They hold that the Brahmacharya ashram is only preparatory to the Grihastha ashram. Since each school is supported by Vedic text, all three are equally valid.
In the present day, few people find it practical to follow this system of life. Most people subscribe to the Badha school of thought, albeit unknowingly. First, they study, which prepares them for an occupation, and then marry. This stage, with slight variations according to different individuals, continues for the rest of their life.
Ganesha, also called Ganapati, is the god of wisdom, prudence, and salvation. Ga means "knowledge", na means "salvation", and isa and pati mean "lord". Ganesha is also said to mean 'lord of the ganas', Shiva's multitude of attendants. In south India, Ganesha is worshipped as Pillaiyar. Ganesha is represented as a short, pot-bellied man with an elephant's head with one tusk, four arms, and yellow skin. In mythology, the elephant symbolises devotion, patience and truth. His corpulent figure conveys prosperity as represented by the laddoos he is always shown with. In his hands, he holds a conch shell (see Shankha), a discus, a club, and a lotus . Ganesha rides on a mouse, signifying the unity of the small with the big.
He is also the most widely worshipped deity. All ceremonies, religious or secular, begin with an invocation to Ganesha. His image is printed on cards sent out for any happy occasion, like for the announcement of birth in the family or a wedding. Usually before beginning any religious writing, he is invoked with words 'Om Shri Ganeshaya Namaha', literally meaning "Ganesha, I pray to you". Most people, from student to shopkeeper, movie producer to nuclear scientist, begin work by invoking Ganesha, however briefly.
The Puranas differ considerably in their account of Ganesha's origin. He is not mentioned before 500 AD and was quite insignificant until the mid-15th century. According to the Padma Purana, he is the younger son of Shiva and Parvati.
According to the Shiva Purana, Ganesha was born of the scurf from Parvati's body. Once, when Shiva was away, Parvati wanted someone to guard the door while she bathed.
From the scurf of her body, she moulded a boy and gave him life. She told him to attend the door and not allow anyone to enter. Shiva returned, and when he tried to enter, was stopped by Ganesha. An argument arose, and enraged, Shiva cut off Ganesha's head and entered. When Parvati discovered that Shiva had entered by beheading her son, she was inconsolable. Repentant, Shiva ordered that the head of the first living being that was found should be brought to him. This happened to be the head of an elephant calf. He placed this on Ganesha's body and restored him to life.
A legend explains why Ganesha is worshipped before any other deity or prior to any important event. It happened that Shiva asked Kartikeya and Ganesha to circle the world and return. Kartikeya hurried off on his peacock, but Ganesha walked around Shiva and Parvati. He explained that for him, his parents constituted the world. Pleased, Shiva granted him a boon, saying that before undertaking any important task, people would pray to Ganesha. According to the Narasimha Purana, if he is not worshipped at the beginning of a ceremony, he creates obstacles for the performers. Therefore, no matter what the occasion or ceremony be, Ganesha is worshipped before all other deities. For this reason, he is called Vighneshwara, the remover of all obstacles. Ganesha's mouse, by gnawing its way through everything, is said to symbolise the god's ability to destroy all obstacles.
Ganesha is believed to have written the Mahabharata to Veda Vyasa's dictation. When the sage asked Ganesha to write down the epic, the learned god agreed on condition that his pen should not stop moving until the story was completed. Vyasa agreed but said that Ganesha should write only if he completely understood what was dictated. So whenever Ganesha stopped to consider Vyasa's complicated compositions, the sage would use the time to compose more verses. Ganesha is also known as Ekdanta, or the one with one tooth, because one of his tusks is broken. The reason for this, according to the Padma Purana, is that one-day when Shiva was sleeping, Parashurama came to visit him. However, Ganesha would not allow Parashurama in, for his father's sleep would be disturbed. When Parashurama insisted he be permitted entry, a fight broke out. In the course of their struggle, Parashurama threw his axe at Ganesha. This axe had been given to him by Shiva. Recognising the axe and out of reverence for his father, Ganesha refused to intercept the weapon. He bowed and took its impact on one of his tusks, which broke.
The Puranas say that the fourth day of the month, known as Chaturthi, is specially Ganesha auspicious for Ganesha worship. It is believed that Ganesha was born on the chaturthi of Bhadra. However every chaturthi is considered auspicious and Ganesha Chaturthi is an important festival in India, especially in Maharashtra.
Linga means "sign, mark, or symbol". It also refers to a digging implement or plough. Since the plough readies the earth for insemination, the word linga is also applied to the phallus, particularly as the phallic emblem of Shiva. Though Shiva is considered the destroyer (Trimurti) according to Hindu belief, creation (Srishti) follows destruction. The linga is therefore associated with the sexual union of Shiva and Parvati, which results in creation. It is a symbol of the procreative power of the universe.
Linga is derived from the Sanskrit word lingam, which comes from li meaning, "to dissolve" and gam "to move on". This refers to the belief that one appears as a being in the world and then dissolves back into the universe.
A Shivalinga is phallus-shaped and fixed on a base, which is shaped like a yoni. The structure symbolises the supreme creative energy. It is usually made of stone but can also be of wood, metal, crystal, and soapstone.
There are various explanations as to why the linga represents Shiva. According to the Vamana Purana, after Sati's death, Shiva went to mourn in the forest. Seeing the virile god, the wives of the sages living in the forest were enamoured and followed Shiva around. Enraged, the sages cursed Shiva, causing his phallus to fall off. The moment it touched the ground, his phallus started growing. Soon the earth, unable to support its weight, began quivering. When Brahma and Vishnu realised why the earth was shaking, they requested Shiva to take back his phallus. Shiva consented to do so on the condition that the sages worshipped his phallus. He pronounced that nothing would be impossible for one who worshipped the Shivalinga.
The Linga Purana says that Brahma and Vishnu were once arguing over who was the supreme being. Suddenly, there appeared Sivalinga before them a huge column of fire. Both of them decided to find one end each. Whoever returned first would be acknowledged as supreme. Vishnu assumed the form of a boar and dug into the earth. Brahma, in the form of a swan, flew upwards. They searched for days but in vain. Then Shiva appeared in the fiery column. Brahma and Vishnu realised their mistake and acknowledged Shiva as the Supreme Being. The Shivalinga represents that column of fire Jyotirlinga
The phallic cult appears to have been prevalent in India since the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3000 BC - 700 BC). Emblems resembling the linga and yoni have been discovered in excavations of ancient cities. Although the Vedas are contemptuous of the linga because of its association with the phallus, later literature like the Puranas and tantric texts laud phallic worship. According to these texts, Brahma, Vishnu and other gods live at the site where Shiva exists in the form of a linga. The Vamana Purana says that during Chaturmasya, Shiva sleeps in all lingas. Therefore, praying at any linga during this time is considered especially auspicious. It is believed that the land within 100 cubits (about 160 ft) of a linga is very sacred and called Shivasthala.
There are approximately 30 million lingas in temples and shrines all over India. Most of them are named after the place where they are located or after the person who established them there. Lingas fall into three categories. The first are the Anadi or Svayambhu, or self-generated lingas. They are believed to be the most sacred and are said to have fallen from heaven. Next are the Sithavara, or fixed lingas. These are crafted and then, after an initiation ceremony done according to Puranic rites, installed at a sacred location. It is believed that once a linga is installed, it should never be moved as that would result in a calamity. The third category of lingas are the Jangam, or movable lingas. These are the miniature lingas, which are made of stone, clay, metal, or other material. They are worn as amulets and necklaces, or worshipped in the homes of Shiva's devotees.
The actual worship of the Shivalinga begins with bathing it, first with water mixed with earth, and then with water mixed with the Panchagavya. The linga is then smeared with sandalwood paste. Next, flowers and leaves are offered especially bel leaves. Next comes the arati, followed by the devotee's prayer. Shiva is believed to be very hot-tempered: bathing the linga and applying sandalwood paste are believed to soothe him.
The linga of light (see Shivalinga). There are believed to be 12 such lingas, the first to have appeared on earth, although their location is not consistently identified. Shiva is supposed to have first manifested himself as a jyotirlinga (lingodbhava) on the night of the Arudra nakshatra (see Panchanga). The jyotirlingas look like any other linga. However, it is believed that a person who has attained a certain degree of spirituality sees these lingas as columns of fire piercing through the earth. There are six definitely agreed-upon jyotirlingas: Kedar in the Himalayas; Bhimashankara at Dakini (Maharashtra); Tryambak on the banks of the River Gautami in Nasik (Maharashtra); Somnath at Saurashtra (Gujarat); Mahakala at Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh); Rameshvara at Jyotirlinga at Somnath.Setubandhana (Tamil Nadu). The other six commonly accepted jyotirlingas are Vishvanath at Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh); Amareshvara at Omkara; Vaidyanath at Parali (Maharashtra); Nagesh at Darukavan (Maharashtra); Ghushmesh at Shivalaya near Ellora (Maharashtra); Mallikarjuna at Srisailam (Andhra Pradesh).
Trimurti, meaning "having three forms", is the term applied to the three main Hindu gods: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. This Trimurti or triad represents all aspects of the Supreme Being. The Trimurti is depicted as a single-bodied, three-headed man. This symbolises the fact that the three forms are aspects of one Supreme Being. Nothing in the universe is created, preserved, or destroyed without the mutual agreement and approval of the three aspects of the Supreme Being, for they are unitedly essential for the production and reproduction of all forms of life
The concept of a divine triad is rooted in the earliest Hindu beliefs, which were largely fashioned by man's reaction to nature: reverence and fear, for there was no means of controlling it. As a result, he personified natural phenomena and worshipped them. The earliest triad comprised of Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman, representing the basic aspects of nature like the day and night, earth and sky. As new concepts replaced older ones, this Triad gave way to another, of Vayu, Agni, and Surya. Later Indra replaced Vayu as a member of this highest order.
By Puranic times, the awesome aspects of nature had ceased to be so terrifying. Man was slowly understanding, and thereby learning to control, these phenomena. In addition, the earlier deities were limited: they could only control that aspect of nature, which they represented. A superior being was required who could control both nature and man, as well as provide solace. And so Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, (Creation, Preservation, and Destruction), came to be.According to the Puranas, the 'Trimurti' originated from Adishakti. However the widely accepted belief is that it represents earth, water, and fire. The earth has given rise to all living beings, and is therefore regarded as the divine creator. It is represented as Brahma, the creator. Brahma also represents the quality of passion or desire (rajo-guna), which is responsible for the creation of the world.
No living being can exist without water, which sustains life, and therefore preserves it. It is represented as Vishnu, the preserver. He also represents the quality of mercy (satva-guna), because of which the world is preserved.
Fire destroys life, and is responsible for the destruction of the world . It is represented as Shiva, the destroyer. He also represents the quality of darkness and wrath (tamo-guna), which is responsible for the annihilation of the universe.
The Trimurti is no longer worshipped as a deity. Even initially, it was worshipped as a representation of Brahman, the Supreme Being, and as a single entity. Later, each god was separated from the single entity and considered a deity in his own right. Today, Brahma is not worshipped, but Vishnu and Shiva both have large followings.
Brahma is the god first represented in the Hindu Triad (see Trimurti). He is the creator of the universe and all living beings are said to have evolved from him.Brahma is depicted as red in color with four heads, bearded faces, and four arms. His hands hold a kamandalu, his bow or a rosary, a sacrificial ladle, and the Vedas. Brahma is sometimes depicted as sitting on a lotus. The four Vedas are said to have originated from his head. The four castes (see Varna) are also believed to have originated from Brahma: the Brahmins from his head, the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaishyas from his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet.
Brahma was assigned the work of creating the universe by Brahman, the Supreme Being to assist him in this endeavor, Brahma created 10 Prajapatis, who are believed to be the fathers of the human race. Their names, according to the Manusmriti are Marichi, Atri, Angirasa,
Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasishtha, Prachetas or Daksha, Bhrigu, and Narada. These Prajapatis are believed to be born from the mind of Brahma. He is also believed to have created the Saptarishi, or seven great sages, to help him create the universe.
The world is said to exist for one kalpa, or one day in the life of Brahma. At the end of a kalpa, the whole world is destroyed. Brahma is then believed to go to sleep for one night, which is as long as a kalpa. When he awakens, he recreates the world. This process (pralaya) is repeated for 100 years of Brahma, which is the life span of one Brahma. Then everything dissolves into its constituent elements. This whole process is repeated unendingly.
Brahma's abode is known as Brahmaloka, which is said to contain all the splendors of earth and of the heavens of the other gods. His vehicle or vahana is a white swan or goose, which has magical abilities: it can separate soma and milk from water. Therefore this bird is also a symbol of sifting good from evil. Unlike other deities, Brahma does not have a weapon. Being the lord of sacrifices, he is identified with a sceptre in the form of a spoon. However, some sources say that his weapon is the bow, which he is sometimes shown with.
His consort is Sarasvati, the goddess of wisdom and science, the mother of the Vedas, and the inventor of the Devanagari script. She is represented as a fair woman with four arms, dressed in white and seated on a white lotus. As goddess of the arts, she is shown playing, or holding, a veena. In one of her right hands, she holds a book of palm leaves, and in the other, a lotus. In her left hands, she has a string of pearls, and a damaru.
Although Brahma is considered equal to Vishnu and Shiva, he is currently not widely worshipped. There are only two temples in India dedicated to him, one at Pushkar near Ajmer in Rajasthan, and the other at Khedabrahma in Kerala. However, he is only worshipped by sanyasi (see Ashram). Apart from these temples, there are also some verses describing which are chanted by Brahmins every morning.
There are several reasons that Brahma is no longer worshipped. One belief is that being the creator, his work is complete, at least for the time being. Therefore he is not as revered as the other two gods of the triad (see Trimurti).
Another reason is based on a legend in the Skanda Purana. Attempting to prove his superiority, Brahma lied to Vishnu, while the ketaki flower stood false witness for him. For this, Brahma was cursed by Shiva that he would never be worshipped on earth, nor would the ketaki ever be offered in worship (see Jyotirlinga). And so it is, since time immemorial. Some of Vishnu's incarnations or avatars, like Matsya, Kurma, and Varaha, were earlier ascribed to Brahma, for both Vishnu and Brahma were described as 'Narayana', one who moves on the waters. However, as Brahma's importance declined and Vishnu's rose, these avataras were transferred to Vishnu.
According to Manu and the Shatapatha Brahmana (see Brahmana), Brahma emerged from Brahman, the Supreme Being. Brahman wanted to create the universe. To this end, he first created water, into which he deposited his seed. This seed became a golden egg, and from this egg, he was born as Brahma or Hiranyagarbha, born of the golden egg. Another account of Brahma's origin is found in the Mahabharata. It says that Brahma arose from a 1,000-petalled lotus that grew out of Vishnu's navel. According to the Puranas, Brahma is said to be the son of the Supreme Being and his female energy, Maya. Other sources however, state that Maya is the wife or daughter of Brahma.
Originally, Brahma is said to have five heads. The Matsya Purana explains the reason for this. It states that Brahma created a woman, known by different names: Satarupa, Sarasvati, Sandhya or Brahmi. Because of her beauty, he fell in love with her and stared at her longingly. To avoid his gaze, she moved to his left, then behind him, and then to his right. But a head sprang up wherever she moved to enable Brahma to continue looking at her. In desperation, she jumped into the air, but a fifth head appeared on top. Brahma then asked her to help him create the universe. He lived with her for 100 divine years at the end of which Manu was born.
There are different explanations for why Brahma only has four heads now, as opposed to his original five. According to the Puranas, Brahma and Vishnu were once arguing over who was superior of the two. They discovered from the Vedas that Shiva was the Supreme Being. Brahma however, spoke disparagingly about Shiva. In anger, Shiva cut off the head, which had spoken, and therefore Brahma was left with four heads.
Vishnu, (from the Sanskrit root 'vish', to pervade) is the second god of the Hindu triad (see Trimurti) and as the preserver of the universe represents mercy and goodness. He is said to be the cosmic ocean nara, meaning water, which was the only thing in existence before the creation of the universe. For this reason, he is also known as Narayana, or "one who moves on the waters".
Vishnu is represented as a dark man with four arms. In one hand, he holds a club, in another a conch shell (see Shankha), in the third, a discus (Chakra), and in the fourth, a lotus (Kamal). He is usually dressed in yellow robes and therefore also known as Pitambara, or "one with yellow garments". The river Ganga is said to originate from Vishnu's feet. He is also depicted as resting on a coiled serpent Seshnaga or Ananta (see Snake Worship) which floats on the cosmic ocean. According to the Mahabharata, Vishnu's abode, Vaikuntha, is made of gold and .jewels. However, he is usually depicted reclining on Seshnaga, who floats on the cosmic ocean. His vehicle is Garuda, and his weapon is the discus, Sudarshana Chakra.
Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and fortune. She is believed to have emerged from the samudra manthan, and considered to be the daughter of Bhrigu and Khyati. She is a fair woman who wears red clothes, and is always depicted as sitting or standing on a red lotus (see Kamal). She is often worshipped by herself as Sri, Bhagya Lakshmi and Dhana Lakshmi, the goddess of all things auspicious, of good fortune and wealth.
Vishnu is a very popular deity and is widely worshipped. The Vishnu Purana details the benefits of his worship. He has a 1,000 names, whose repetition is believed to bring great merit. He is also worshipped as Satyanarayana. Apart from this, there are many other vratas and festivals related to Vishnu. A variety of ammonite fossils, the shalgrama shila, is believed to be a form of Vishnu and is widely worshipped. There is also a specific arati associated with Vishnu, which eulogises him. Those who believe in the supremacy of Vishnu over Shiva are known as Vaishnava. They can be distinguished by their tilaka, which is different from that of Shaiva. Vishnu as the preserver is not mentioned in the Rig Veda (see Veda). In the text, he is considered to be the manifestation of solar energy. His role as the preserver was established by the Puranas.
The Padma Purana describes him as the Supreme Being, identifying him with Brahman . It states that Vishnu, wanted to create the universe. To this end, he divided himself into three parts: from his rightside, he produced Brahma the creator; from his left, he produced Vishnu, the preserver; and from his middle, he produced Shiva, the destroyer.
Vishnu has several avataras. According to the Puranas and the Mahabharata, whenever there is an imbalance between good and evil on the earth, Vishnu, as the preserver, is born to re-establish the balance. The Bhagavata Purana, among other sources, say that there are 22 avataras of Vishnu. However, the widely accepted belief is that there are 10 avataras, known as the Dashavatara. All the 10 avataras are revered, but the seventh, Rama (see Ramayana), and eighth, Krishna, are believed to be great heroes and worshipped as gods in their own right. Of Vishnu's 10 avataras, the first four are believed to have occurred in the Krita Yuga, the fifth, sixth, and seventh in the Treta Yuga, the eighth in the Dvapara Yuga, and the ninth in the Kali Yuga. The tenth avatara has yet to appear, and it is believed that he will come at the end of the Kali Yuga. The avataras are Matsya, the fish, which appeared in the Krita Yuga. Vishnu assumed this form to save Vaivasvata, the seventh Manu, from the universal deluge that occurs after each Manvantara.
Kurma, the tortoise, assumed to act as a pivot for Mount Mandara and protect the earth during the samudra manthan.
Varaha, the boar. Hiranyaksha, a demon, had dragged the earth to the bottom of the sea. He had also obtained a boon from Brahma, ensuring that he would not be killed by any of the creatures he named. However, while doing so, Hiranyaksha omitted to name the boar. Therefore Vishnu assumed this form and dived to the depths of the ocean. After defeating the demon, he balanced the earth on the horn above his snout and surfaced safely with her. Narasimha, the man-lion. After severe penance, another demon, Hiranyakashipu, had been granted a boon by Brahma,
Vishnu according to which he would die neither by day nor at night, neither indoors or outdoors, and be killed by neither man nor beast. Considering himself invincible, he became a tyrant. In order to kill him, Vishnu assumed the form of a man-lion. He killed Hiranyakashipu at twilight on the threshold of his palace. But the demon's son Prahalada was an ardent devotee of Vishnu and won his favor. Vamana, the dwarf, was the first avatara to appear in the Treta Yuga. Vishnu assumed this fifth incarnation to subdue Mahabali, a demon king, who by performing severe austerities, controlled heaven, earth and hell. The gods were shorn of their power and significance. When Mahabali performed an important sacrifice, Vishnu turned up as Vamana, the dwarf-Brahmin son of Kashyapa and Aditi. He asked Bali to grant him as much land as he could cover in three steps. When Bali agreed, as he was bound to by custom, Vamana grew to a gigantic size, and in two.
Vishnu steps covered heaven and the earth. However, he left Patala, the netherworld for Bali, who had to offer his own head for Vishnu's third step to be completed.onam
Parashurama, 'Rama of the axe', a Brahmin, born to the sage Jamadagni and his wife Renuka. His father suspected his mother of infidelity and ordered Parashurama to behead her with his axe. He did so and when his father granted him a boon in reward, he asked to have his mother back. She was deified later as an incarnation of Parvati. Parashurama was born to annihilate the Kshatriyas, who had fallen into evil and oppressive ways, led by the insolent king of Mahishmati, Kiratarjuna, who eventually killed Jamadagni. In revenge, Parashurama tried to wipe out the entire Kshatriya caste (see Varna) 21 times, but each time a few escaped. According to the Puranas, Parashurama was successful in his last attempt (see Kshatriya). He then went to the shores of the Arabian Sea and flung his bloodied axe into the ocean, which yielded up the verdant, spice-laden land of Kerala. Thereafter, he retired to meditate. He appears briefly both in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Rama, the ascetic-prince of Ayodhya, who is widely worshipped in the north as the embodiment of human perfection and the killer of the demon-king Ravana, but remains controversial for the treatment of his consort, Sita. After being kidnapped by Ravana and rescued by Rama, she had to undergo a public ordeal by fire to prove that she had been left chaste while in capture. Though Agni himself returned her with all honour to Rama, he nevertheless banished her to the forest some years later, while she was pregnant, because of the ramblings of a drunk washerman berating his own wife (see Ramayana). Krishna, the eighth incarnation. Krishna was born to destroy his evil uncle, Kansa, who had usurped the throne of Mathura. He played a crucial role in the Mahabharata and fully revealed his divinity as the expounder of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna. Like Rama, Krishna is a popular deity and is widely worshipped. His death is believed to have marked the beginning of the Kali Yuga.
Buddha, the enlightened one, founder of Buddhism. The inclusion of the Buddha as one of the Dashavataras is clearly an attempt to incorporate Buddhism into Hinduism. Vishnu is believed to have taken the form of the Buddha to encourage evil people to despise the Vedas, and reject the caste system and the deities. In this way they would effect their own destruction. This incarnation appeared in the Kali Yuga.
Kalki, the rider. This tenth incarnation of Vishnu is yet to appear on earth. It is believed that Kalki will ride a white horse and wield a flaming sword with which he will destroy all evil. The coming of this fierce horseman will mark the end of this present age of evil, the Kali Yuga, after which purity will reign once again in another Treta Yuga.
Shiva literally means "auspiciousness, welfare". He is the third god of the Hindu Triad (see Trimurti) and is the destroyer of all evil. He represents darkness (tamas), and is said to be the 'angry god'. However, according to Hinduism, creation follows destruction. Therefore Shiva is also regarded as a reproductive power, which restores what has been dissolved. As one who restores, he is represented as the linga or phallus (see Shivalinga), a symbol of regeneration.
He has a 1,008 names, including Mahadeva (the great god), Mahesh, Rudra, Neelkantha (the blue-throated one), and Ishwar (the supreme god). He is also called Mahayogi, or the great ascetic, who symbolises the highest form of austere penance and abstract meditation, which results in salvation (see Moksha).
Shiva is believed to exist in many forms. His most common depiction is as a dark-skinned ascetic with a blue throat. Usually seated cross-legged on a tiger skin,
Shiva's hair is matted and coiled on his head, adorned with a snake and a crescent moon. Ganga is always depicted flowing out of his topknot. Shiva has four arms and three eyes. The third eye, in the middle of his forehead, is always closed and only opens to annihilate an evil doer. A garland of skulls, rudraksha beads, or a snake hang from his neck. Shiva also wears snakes as armlets and bracelets. The serpent race, despised and feared by all other creatures, found a place of honour on Shiva's sacred person, simply because he was moved by their plight.
In one hand, Shiva holds his trishul, the Pinaka. The trishul usually has a damaru or waisted drum tied to it. In another hand, he holds a conch shell (see Shankha), and in the third, a rudraksha rosary, a club, or a bow. One hand is usually empty, raised in a gesture of blessing and protection. The other points to his feet, where the devotee is assured of salvation. He wears a tiger or leopard skin around his waist, and his upper body is usually bare, but smeared with ashes, as befits an ascetic. His third eye is believed to have appeared when Parvati, in a playful mood, covered his eyes with her hands. Immediately, the universe was plunged into darkness and there was chaos. To restore order, Shiva formed another eye on his forehead, from which emerged fire to restore light. The light from this eye is believed to be very powerful, and therefore destructive. Shiva opens his third eye only in anger, and the offender is burnt to cinders.
The name Shiva does not appear in the Vedas. However he is identified with the Vedic god Rudra, lord of songs, sacrifices, nourishment, the healer of diseases and provider of property. According to the Shiva Purana, Shiva is said to have five faces, corresponding to his five tasks, the panchakriya: creation, establishment, destruction, oblivion, and grace. His five faces are associated with the creation of the sacred syllable Om.
Shiva is said to live on Mount Kailash, a mountain in the Himalayas. His vehicle is Nandi the bull and his weapon, the trishul. Shiva's consort is Parvati, who is also believed to be a part of Shiva. One of the most popular forms of Shiva is that of Ardhanarishvara.
According to a story in the Puranas, Brahma was unsuccessful at creation. He propitiated Shiva who took this form and separated Parvati from his body. Parvati has many incarnations, like Kali, Durga, and Uma. Their sons are Kartikeya and Ganesha.
Shiva is believed to have a large number of attendants, called ganas. These mythological beings have human bodies with animal heads. Shiva's son Ganesha is the leader of the ganas.
Across the country, there are hundreds of temples and shrines dedicated to Shiva. He is usually worshipped in the form of a shivalinga, and also as an idol. He is worshipped by offering flowers, excepting the
Ketaki Brahma Bel leaves, milk, and sandalwood paste are also pleasing to him. There is a special arati to Shiva and many hymns and poems in his praise.
There are many stories in the Puranas about the origin of Shiva. According to the Vishnu Purana, at the beginning of this kalpa Brahma wanted a child and meditated for one. Presently, a child appeared on his lap and started crying. When asked by Brahma why he was crying, the child replied that it was because he did not have a name. Brahma then named him Rudra, meaning "howler". However the child cried seven more times and was given seven more names. Shiva therefore has eight forms: Rudra, Sharva, Bhava, Ugra, Bhima, Pashupati, Ishana, and Mahadeva, which, according to the Shiva Purana, correspond to the earth, water, fire, wind, sky, a yogi called Kshetragya, the sun, and the moon respectively. During the samudra manthan, when poison was churned out of the ocean, Shiva is said to have swallowed it to save the world from destruction. As he drank the poison, Parvati clasped his throat tightly so that the poison remained there and darkened his neck. Because of this, he is known as Neelkantha, the blue-necked one.
Shiva granted a peculiar boon to a demon called Bhasmasura, who wished that if he placed his hand on anyone's head, that person would turn to ashes. No sooner was his wish granted than he menaced Shiva himself, who took to his heels and was saved by Vishnu, in the form of Mohini, the enchantress Induced by Mohini to join her dance, the demon soon killed himself by placing his hand on his own head. Shiva and Mohini combined their energies and produced Hari-hara putra (Vishnu-Shiva's son), later identified with Sasta or Aiyappa, a celibate tribal deity in Kerala, whose cult is now enormous in India.. He lives on in Mohiniattam, the feminine counterpart of Kerala's dance theatre, Kathakali.
Shiva is the creator of dance and of the first 16 rhythmic syllables ever uttered, from which the Sanskrit language was born. His dance of anger is called the Roudra Tandava and his dance of joy, the Ananda Tandava. All the gods and sages were present when he first danced the Nadanta Tandava, a characteristically vigorous dance, and they begged him to dance again. Shiva promised to do so in the hearts of his devotees and in a sacred grove in Tamil Nadu, where the great temple of Chidambaram was built, the only one in all India dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, the lord of dance. It is believed that on the 13th day of each bright lunar fortnight (see Hindu Calendar), after 6 o'clock in the evening, falls a sacred hour called Pradosha. Worshipping Shiva at this time is akin to worshipping all the powers
Shiva the universe, for this is the time when all the gods are believed to have assembled on Kailash to lose them in the ecstasy of Nataraja's dance.
Like people the world over, most Indians are highly superstitious. Many aspects of their life is linked to some superstitious belief and some of these are even mentioned in religious literature.
Most superstitions were born with an aim to protect and were based on sound reasoning. With time, however, much of the reasoning has been forgotten and the beliefs appear unsubstantiated. But there are also many beliefs that have no reason behind them.
Of superstitions, those believed to portend future happenings are considered important. Anything from the call of a bird to the falling of utensils is considered an omen.
Many omens relate to animals, birds and reptiles. The most auspicious omen is to see an elephant when one is on a journey, for it represents Ganesha, the god of good luck and the remover of obstacles. The cawing of a crow in one's house foretells the coming of guests. A peacock seen while on a journey is said to be good but hearing its shrill call indicates robbery by highway men. A dog howling near a sick man's chamber predicts his death. Seeing a cat or a cow's face early in the morning brings ill luck. A sparrow is encouraged to build a nest in a new house for good fortune. A yellow or white substance dropped on the threshold by a cow indicates the gain of gold or silver. To protect cats, which were useful in destroying rats and other pests, the Brahmins imposed a ban on its killing, to be redeemed expensively with an offering of a golden cat to a Brahmin.
The wall lizard boasts the most superstitions. Every movement of this reptile holds some significance, indeed, a science called the Gowli Shastra enumerates these. The colour, spots, stripes, chirping or twittering of the lizard and where it falls on a person's body are said to indicate future happenings.
Leaving on a journey is a very important occasion and precautions have to be taken depending on the importance of the journey. The astrologer is consulted to select an auspicious time to begin. There are several beliefs linked with starting on a journey. A sneeze or terms of dissuasion like "Stay, don't go", or "Where are you going?" used accidentally by someone at this crucial time are ill omens and a person must start again if this happens. It is considered auspicious to see cowdung, cereals, paddy, cotton, hay or a newly wed before starting on a journey.
There is also a strong belief in the power of dreams, as divine warnings. Dreaming of gods, demons, auspicious animals or any other auspicious thing is good. Whereas, dreaming of gold or iron, falling stars or earthquakes is bad. There are many people who claim to be able to decipher dreams and their talents are employed by believers.
Daily life is governed by do's and don'ts for each day of the week. Thus Monday is not an auspicious day for shaving or Tuesday for washing one's hair or Saturday for buying oil.
Most of these superstitions are linked to the respective planets presiding over each day (see Hindu Calendar). The kitchen is virtually the temple of a Hindu home and the highest levels of hygiene are expected to be maintained. Most Hindus do not enter a kitchen with their shoes on, as it is said to induce the wrath of the gods. This belief originated when kitchens were traditional, with mud stoves in a corner. Families sat on the floor and ate off plates or leaves placed on the ground. This required the kitchen to be absolutely clean. Another belief linked to this was that before eating their food, people sprinkled water around their plates supposedly in remembrance of their ancestors. Actually, the water around the plate acted as a barrier against the ants and insects that crept about the kitchen floor.
There are other common beliefs devised for protection. One should neither clip one's nails at night nor use scissors for fear of angering evil spirits. This diktat prevailed in the days before electricity as a deterrent to injuring one's fingers in the dark, but many mothers still enforce this rule at home, the reasoning being lost in time. A persistent belief is that one must not sweep the floor after the sunsets, otherwise Lakshmi would also be swept away. This too is a pre-electricity precaution against inadvertently losing fallen valuables.
Some other popular superstitions are if a person hiccups, it is believed that someone is talking about him or remembering him. One theory holds that this is a way of keeping alive the memory of family members who are travelling or live far away.
The falling of utensils on the floor foretells the coming of guests. Breaking a mirror is extremely inauspicious. This belief is meant to urge caution while handling something as fragile and potentially injurious as glass, as most people were barefoot inside the house.
To protect foolhardy wanderers from snakes and other lurking dangers, it is held that evil spirits infest trees and empty houses, resulting in a lively fear of going to these places at night.
There are also many superstitions related to a pregnant woman, which originated for her protection. Some of the most widespread are: A pregnant woman should not wander out alone at night or enter an empty house because evil spirits might infest her. The husband of a pregnant woman should not build a house as that might rouse the wrath of the earth spirit. He must not bathe in the sea for the seashore is thick with ghosts. All these rules were imposed on people, as ways to protect the prospective mother and father against any dangers. In addition, when a woman is pregnant, her husband's presence is important for moral support and help with the chores. Therefore unnecessary journeys or the involvement of the husband in any major tasks is postponed.
There is a superstitious belief in some parts of the country that when a child is born, its father must not see its face till it is six months old as it might lead to ill-luck. Therefore some time before the child is born, the mother is sent to her parents' home. This serves two practical purposes: the mother is pampered by her own mother, and so is the baby, as all the mother's attention is centered on her child, with no distractions of looking after her husband or doing other chores.
In the post-partum period and while menstruating, a woman is debarred from attending any ceremony. She is also not allowed to enter the kitchen or mingle with others, as she is believed to be impure and unclean at this time. The underlying idea is that a woman at this time requires complete rest and a religious edict protects her from unnecessary exertion. Personal appearance, gait, manner and speech are all said to indicate the future. The location, size and number of moles on the body brand someone as auspicious or inauspicious. It is believed that the presence of a sign resembling a wheel on any part of the body is extremely lucky. The right side of the body is considered to be more auspicious than the left. This is so because the left hand is used for all 'unclean' actions. Therefore a man ensures that he first puts his right foot into a house. All ceremonies are conducted with the right hand. Gifts are also given and accepted only with the right hand.
When the right hand itches it means good luck and the reverse applies to the left hand. This relates simply to the clean (right) and unclean (left) sides of the body. Paradoxically, twitching of the right eye is considered inauspicious and of e left eye, auspicious.
Marriage, one of the most important events in life, has many superstitions associated with it. It is believed that a new bride brings luck and prosperity with her and that her fortune is mingled with that of the groom's family. For the first one year of marriage, all happenings in the family are monitored and accordingly the bride is termed auspicious or inauspicious. Any good or bad occurrence in the family during this time is said to result from the presence of the bride. A new bride is however, generally considered to be auspicious.
On the other hand, widows were considered especially inauspicious. This belief probably stemmed from her traditional financial powerlessness. Widows were debarred from attending any auspicious ceremony, as it was believed that their presence might negatively affect its success. A new bride was protected from the glance of a widow for the same reason. Therefore widows had separate areas to live in where they cooked their own food. They were not allowed to eat meat, onions, garlic or spices for these were considered excitatory, and a widow was supposed to suppress, not inflame her passions. Most of these rules have fallen into disuse now.
A barren woman is still considered inauspicious by many, given the patriarchal social system and its emphasis on children especially sons. Such a woman, though not debarred, is avoided during all auspicious occasions by those with a rigidly traditional outlook. During the nuptial bath and other ceremonies related to marriage, which require the presence of suhagans, it is generally women with sons, pregnant women or the newly married, who participate. A barren woman is not brought near a bride or child for whom a ceremony is being performed for fear that her ill fate will rub off onto them.
People are also very superstitious about their mornings. It is believed that the whole day is affected by the morning. Seeing a bride, the statue of a deity, or a Brahmin is considered auspicious, while sighting widows, barren women and unlucky people is considered inauspicious. To avoid the risk
of seeing anything unpleasant in the morning, many people look at the palms of their hands as soon as they awaken and recite this invocation: "In the tips of the fingers resides Lakshmi; in the middle, Sarasvati; in the palm of the hand resides Parvati; looking at my hands, I begin my day."
There are also many superstitions related to death. The most important among them is that food is not cooked in a house where death has occurred. At this time, all the members of the family are considered to be unclean and do not enter the kitchen. Neighbors are expected to cook and send food for them. This belief probably results from the fact that when a death occurs in a family, the relatives of the deceased are , and have neither the desire nor the time to cook. This practice also reinforces the sense of community at times of trouble.
T
ilaka or Pundraka is a ritual mark on the forehead, of sandalwood paste, coloured earth or vermilion. It is a sign of sectarian distinction, and of auspiciousness.The spot between the brows where the tilaka is applied is considered the seat of latent wisdom and mental concentration, which is very important for worship. This is the spot on which yogis meditate to become one with Brahman. It also indicates the point at which the spiritual eye opens. All thoughts and actions are said to be governed by this spot. The tilaka, initially of either sandalwood paste or some other cool substance, was applied on this spot to keep it cool so that man could be of stable mind and thought. Most Hindu scholars, even today, sport a sandalwood paste tilaka.
As various sects arose with time, it was the tilaka that indicated sectarian distinctions. For instance, the devotees of Shiva apply three horizontal lines of vibhuti (sacred ash) on their forehead. This is to remind themselves of the God's threefold nature of creation, preservation and destruction. The ashes also indicate his main function: destruction.
The devotees of Vishnu apply three vertical lines of sandalwood. This is the sign of his preservation and protection. The devotees of Devi (Shakti) apply the kumkum, which is a round or slightly elongated red mark. This evokes the supreme power of Adi Parashakti, the Universal Mother, from whom all life and energy, even the power of the Trinity (see Trimurti), is believed to emanate.
For the lay worshipper, the most common tilaka these days is the one applied ritually after a puja or arati, of red kumkum or sandalwood paste.
A tuft or lock of hair on the crown of the head, a crest, topknot, plume.
From the time of the Vedas, the shikha was a distinguishing feature of the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. It signified the 'twice-born' or all those Upanayanam has been performed. At the time of Chudakarana, a tuft of hair was left on the head, never to be cut. This shikha covered a large part of the brain. According to Sushruta, the reason that a few tufts are left on the head is that at the crown, an artery joins a critical nerve juncture. Since an injury to this part of the head is believed to be fatal, it was considered necessary to protect the area by keeping a tuft of hair over it. The shikha was a symbol of superiority and of cleanliness.
Any religious or auspicious ceremony required the shikha to be tied in a knot. The knot was tied to the accompaniment of the Gayatri Mantra. An untied shikha was a symbol of disgrace, impurity and mourning.
During funeral and death ceremonies (see Antyeshti) it was left untied. Presently only Brahmins wear the shikha, especially by practicing priests. The shikha on the top of the head represents the shikhara that is raised atop all Hindu temples. Temple architecture is based on the vastu purusha mandala or Mystic Square, a diagram said to represent the Supreme Being (see Brahman). A temple is considered a symbolic depiction of the Supreme Being, whose head is represented as the shikhara of the temple. And in men, the shikha symbolises the brahamanda on which Brahma is said to reside.
Swastika is derived from su (well), asti (is) and ka (a noun ending). It means 'it is well' and hence signifies happiness, pleasure and good luck.It is a mystic symbol or figure, which is sacred to most Indian sects. The symbol is shaped like a Greek cross with the extremities of the four arms bent round in the same direction. A swastika is of two types: the right-handed or male, representing the vernal sun and the god Ganesha. In this Svastika, the extremities of the arms of the cross bend clockwise. It is considered auspicious. The left-handed or female cross represents the autumnal sun and the goddess Kali. Its arms are bent in an anti-clockwise direction and it is believed to be inauspicious. The auspicious symbol is used by the religiously inclined on the opening page of account books. It is also used in ceremonies related to marriage, tonsure, the worship of SvastikaLakshmi and during the invocation of the nine planets (see Janmapatri). It is worshipped as a symbol of the sun, Ganesha and the serpent kingdom (see Snake Worship). According to the Vayu Purana, serpents bear the sign of a swastika on their hoods. In festivals and on auspicious occasions, the swastika is drawn on the floor of the house. A yogasana (see Yoga) is named after this symbol, and is considered to signify or evoke good luck. Many theories have been propounded about the swastika. It has been described as the emblem of Zeus, the god of sun, fire and rain, the Trinity (see Trimurti) and also the Supreme Being, Brahman. Most scholars however regard it as a fire or solar symbol and hence it is called the solar or fire cross. It is believed to be derived from the chakra, which is symbolically reduced to four spokes and set at right angles. It also represents the fire-making apparatus of old times, used for kindling the sacrificial fire (homagni). In the Vedas it is referred to as 'the wheel of the sun'. It indicates cosmic procession and evolution around a fixed centre. It also represents the principle of life and movement that transfers the dwarf to the giant and the microcosm to the macrocosm, named rkvam, the rhythmic movement.
This symbol has been in use since the time of the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3000 BC - 700 BC). A large number of seals discovered in Harappa, one of its prime sites, bear swastika designs. Since then, it has represented good luck. Panini, the great Indian scholar, used this symbol as the name of a sign in his grammatical treatise, Ashtadhyayi ('Eight Chapters', 450 BC).
The symbol is not exclusive to India and is known all over the world. Proof of its widespread use has been found in archaeological discoveries in Egypt, China, Greece and Mexico. Curiously, the inauspicious anti-clockwise swastika was used by Hitler as the Nazi emblem.
Moksha, release from worldly existence, final or eternal emancipation, the liberation of the soul from the recurring cycle of birth and death, salvation. It is the spiritual union of the soul, atman, with the supreme soul, Brahman. The Hindus believe in transmigration of the soul: that the soul does not die with the body, but, after a while, takes birth again in some other form. Immediately after death, the soul is believed to travel to Yamapuri, the court of Yama. Here Chitragupta, his record keeper, reads out an account of all the good and the bad deeds committed by that soul during its life. The soul is then given a chance to explain itself. After this, Yama passes judgement and the soul is accordingly sent to heaven or hell. The Hindu hell, however, is not an endless ordeal of misery, as in other beliefs. After serving its allotted term of punishment, the soul is taken to heaven on account of its good deeds. Heaven is also not an endless term of bliss. Hence, after its term there, the soul is reborn in this world in one form or another and the whole process is repeated.
The form in which the soul is reborn depends on the deeds of its previous life. If a soul has done well, it may be born a king. If evil and cruel, it could be reborn as a jackal or a donkey. A soul is not always reborn on earth. It may reappear in any of the fourteen worlds , as a god, a demon or a snake (see Snake Worship).
Birth in any form is considered undesirable, as it brings pain and suffering. Therefore everyone is exhorted to achieve liberation from this tiresome cycle of birth and death, by attaining moksha. Such a state is acquired only by a very saintly person, who has become a perfected soul with no worldly requirements and true knowledge of Brahman.
All sacrifices, pilgrimages, and acts of charity that one performs are directed towards improving the self in order to be born in a higher form, which ultimately leads to the final destination, moksha. This is also the reason why penance or prayashchit is considered so important.
The three paths to moksha are-
1. Bhakti yoga (through devotion), the most popular, in which a devotee chooses a 'personal' deity and prays to it with intense love and devotion.
2. Karma yoga (through action), by devoting one's life to good causes, to the betterment of society with sincerity and faith.
3. Gyana yoga (through knowledge), through perfecting oneself in a particular discipline and meditating on it. Their belief in the transmigration of souls makes the Hindus a fatalistic people. As a result, all one's troubles are attributed to the bad deeds of one's previous birth.
Literally "colour", the caste system. The word "caste" itself comes from the Portuguese and Spanish casta meaning "lineage, race or breed". In Sanskrit, the equivalent word is jati meaning "birth".
This system was originally introduced to India by the Aryans who arrived with three loose social divisions: priests, warriors and commoners. This system was a division of labour and not a social hierarchy. Caste was dictated by occupation and intercaste mobility was the norm.
When the Aryans gave up their nomadic pastoral life and settled down as farmers, occupation became more specialised. Society cleaved into two broad divisions of tillers and traders. The priests and warriors, however, were top of the heap as distinct and privileged groups, on account of the prayers and protection that the others required of them.
Over time this system became increasingly rigid. One important factor in this formalisation was the Aryan interaction with the Dasas. The Aryans wanted to maintain their 'racial purity' over the dark-skinned Dasas and tried to exclude them as much as possible from all aspects of social life: intermingling, marriage, education and occupation.
The Rig-Veda Veda divides society into four separate but interdependent castes. According to the Puranas, the Brahmins were born of the mouth of Brahma. They therefore mediated with the gods on behalf of mankind and addressed prayers to the gods.
The Kshatriyas were born of Brahma's arms, and were duty-bound to protect society and wield weapons. The Vaishyas were born of his thighs and attended to trade, commercial activities, and agriculture. The Shudras were born of Brahma's feet and their only purpose was to serve the other three castes. The three upper castes became known as 'svarna jati' or castes of 'good colour' or 'golden colour', an indication of Varna Aryan privilege. And caste itself devolved into a racial differentiation between the conquerors and the conquered, with colour as the most visible distinction.
Apart from the four named castes, there was another category of people called Chandalas. These were the outcastes or untouchables that were considered beyond the pale of the system. They did not live within the village precincts, nor were they allowed to enter the village, except to scavenge and collect night soil.
Members of the first three castes were called dvija or "twice-born". The second birth refers to their initiation into their caste with the thread ceremony Upanayanam
The Hindus believe that the caste one is born into is based on the karma and dharma of one's previous birth Moksha. A good karma and dharma will ensure that one is born into a higher caste in one's next life. As the caste system became more rigid, the lower castes came to be oppressed by the Brahmins mediated with the godson behalf of mankind by performing sacrifices and praying.
Varna the higher castes, who increased their rituals and customs to widen the gap. The system degenerated into a harsh social order where the majority labored for the benefit of a select few. When the Constitution of India was adopted on January 26, 1950, it abolished the caste system and guaranteed equality to all citizens. The Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution ensure equality before law and equal protection by the laws to all persons in the country; they guarantee that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen only on the basis of race or caste and that no citizen shall be restricted in access to places dedicated to the general use of the public; they further ensure that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen with regard to employment or appointment to any state office and that no citizen shall be ineligible for any state office on the grounds only of race or caste. The Constitution also abolished untouchability. Its practice in any form is forbidden and Varnaconsidered a legal offence. The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, further ensures this. And with the spread of education, the centuries-old caste system is inevitably crumbling.
The lowest of the four Hindu varnas, believed to have been born of Brahma's feet.
'Shudra' is a term probably derived from the Sanskrit word 'such', to be afflicted. Many theories have been propounded over the origin of this class. When the Aryans came to India, they were already divided into three fluid classes by way of profession. As the fair-skinned conquerors, they considered themselves superior to the dark-skinned native people, who became a subject race in their own land.
The Dasas could not be left out completely; indeed, the Aryans needed them in their social structure as laborers and artisans. Accordingly, they were co-opted as the lowest caste, the Shudras, and the caste system was made even more rigid, to prevent inter-caste mobility and to keep the Shudras at the bottom of the social structure. According to the Manusmriti, these Dasas or Shudras did not have any special ability and were only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes. This class also included the outcaste (patita) Aryans.
A Shudra enjoyed no rights or privileges. He was not permitted to perform any sacrifices or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras. A Shudra could marry only another Shudra. He was not allowed to enter temples and could only serve the upper three castes as a slave, barber, blacksmith or cobbler.
Because of these strict and harsh social regulations, the Shudras were very supportive of the anti-Brahminical sects that evolved around the 6th century BC, like Buddhism and Jainism. Later, they also converted in large numbers to Islam and Christianity, finding solace in the egalitarianism preached by these faiths.
On January 26 1950, when the Constitution of India was adopted, the caste system was abolished and equality guaranteed to all citizens. This process of upliftment was begun in Shudra modern India by Mahatma Gandhi, who drew upon the humanitarian traditions of ancient and medieval sages, and the human rights activism of 19th century reformers, educationalists and liberal Indian rulers.
Gandhi coined the term 'Harijan' (people of God) for untouchables, who were looked down upon even by the Shudras as outcastes. He succeeded in converting vast numbers of upper class families to his egalitarian beliefs. Appropriately, the founding father of the Constitution was a Harijan (or Dalit, 'oppressed' as they now call themselves) lawyer, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar. The Government of India has ever since, consciously attempted to draw these underprivileged people into the national mainstream through job reservation and special development programmes.
Third in the caste system (see Varna), Vaishyas supposedly evolved from Brahma's thighs. The Vaishya's duty was to ensure the community's prosperity through agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. Later, the Shudras took over agriculture and cattle rearing while the Vaishyas became traders and merchants.
From the end of the 4th century BC, as the country became politically stable, trade routes to previously uncharted areas developed. The merchant community was the first to benefit. Artisans formed guilds and co-operatives in the urban areas and guild leaders became important figures in society. Guilds also provided technical education, though formal education remained the monopoly of the Brahmins. As their economic power increased, they were expected to give alms to Brahmins, throw feasts for them, and donate generously towards the building of temples and shrines.
However, though they were "twice-born" (see Upanayanam) and economically strong because they controlled commerce, Vaishyas were denied a high social status, for which they resented the upper castes. One expression of this resentment was their support of the anti-Brahminical sects that developed around the 6th century BC, like Buddhism and Jainism. Later, however, many influential Vaishyas were honored with titles like 'Nagar Seth' (chief merchant of the town) and 'Tazimi Seth' (privileged to wear an anklet in the king's presence and in royal durbars) Members of trading communities originate mostly from the West Coast and from Sind (in present-day Pakistan). They are commonly known as banias, a distortion of the Sanskrit word vanik meaning "trader". In southern India, the Chettiars and Mudaliars are prominent Vaishya communities, who have contributed to society by building hospitals, endowing universities and developing industries. While the fortunes of the other castes have fluctuated with politics and invasions, the Vaishyas alone have preserved their social and financial stability down the ages. Many of them have funded wars and political movements, notably Seth Amirchand Daga of Bikaner (Rajasthan), who is believed to have financed the British in the Crimean War. In the last century, some of the most prominent Vaishya merchants and philanthropists came from the region of Marwar (Jodhpur), Gujarat and Sindh. Many of them funded Mahatma Gandhi's freedom movement and then evolved into modern India's leading industrialists.
Kshatriya literally means "protector of gentle people". Second in the social hierarchy of the caste system (see Varna), the Kshatriyas were kings and warriors. They were said to have evolved from the arms of Brahma, signifying that their role in society was the protection of people and livestock. The Hindus maintain that only a Kshatriya had the right to rule, though Brahmin rulers are not unknown. They were supposed to be brave and fearless, and to live and die by a code of honour and loyalty. They could eat meat and drink liquor and their most exalted death was to die in battle.
The Puranas say that Parashurama in his time destroyed all the men of the Kshatriya race. Since there was no one left to rule, anarchy prevailed. The Brahmins realised that a class of rulers was required. They held a sacrifice near Mt. Abu (Rajasthan), and from the fire pit emerged four clans: the Parmars, Chauhans, Parihars and Solankis. These fire-born clans Agnikula) were called Rajputs. Therefore, according to the Puranas, other than these Rajputs, those presently known as Kshatriyas are progeny of Brahmins who had married Kshatriya women. There are also leading Rajputs clans that claim descent from the sun and the moon and accordingly labeled themselves as Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi. One theory holds that in the 6th century AD, after the death of arshavardhana, the powerful ruler of Thaneshvara, there was a power vacuum in north India. To maintain the social order, the Brahmins legitimized clans of invading adventurers from Central Asia as Agnikula, Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi Kshatriyas.
Kshatriyas dominated Indian political life down the centuries. Even under the British, there were approximately 600 Indian states. These states had not been annexed by the British and were responsible for their internal administration. Some accepted suzerainty of the Crown and allowed the British to administer their defense and external relations. When the India Independence Act, 1947 was passed, it decreed the lapse of suzerainty of the British Crown. The Indian states regained the position they had held prior to the assumption of suzerainty by the Crown. However, in their own interest, most states merged with either the Dominion of India or Pakistan. All 552 states located within the geographical boundary of the Dominion of India acceded to it by August 15, 1947, except Hyderabad, Kashmir, and seven other states. Subsequently, these states also joined the Indian Union. Almost all the rulers voluntarily ceded all powers of governance to the Dominion government, retaining only certain personal rights and privileges.
Special provisions were made only for Kashmir. All rulers, including those of Jammu & Kashmir and Hyderabad, adopted the Constitution of India by special proclamations.
With the Constitution 7th Amendment Act, 1956, the special provisions relating to these former princely states were also omitted. The Indian states lost their separate identity and became a uniform part of India. In 1971, the Privy Purses guaranteed by the Government of India were abolished by Parliament and modern India bid a formal farewell to the princely order.
Many scions of former ruling houses are still well regarded by the people of the area. Many have joined the modern political system and contest elections to the state assemblies and Parliament.
The caste of priests, of those who know and repeat the Vedas. This is the first of the four Hindu castes (see Varna) and belongs to the dvija or twice-born (see Upanayanam) category.
According to the Puranas, Brahmins were created from the mouth of Brahma so that they might instruct mankind. This was why they were considered the highest of the four castes, as they had the most to do with intellect. Since it was recognised that knowledge is the only thing that remains with a person throughout life, Brahmins, as teachers, were duly respected.
In ancient times, this name was specifically applied to those priests of the Atharva Vedas (see Veda) whose place was at the northern side of the altar during sacrificial ceremonies.
The Brahmins conducted the daily rites, the purification ceremonies (see Sanskara), sacrifices and taught the Vedas. Their life was divided into four stages (see Ashram) Brahmins had to maintain a strict code of conduct and exemplify ideal behavior.
Which they had to go through in the prescribed order. Since they were the teachers, preachers and priests they had to be proficient in sacred knowledge through the Vedas. They had to maintain a strict code of conduct and exemplify ideal behavior. They were to be kind and gentle. For this, they earned certain privileges. They were regarded as the highest class and respected by all, to the extent that they were treated almost like gods by commoners and kings alike. They were given special gifts, dana, dakshina and were free from oppression and immune from capital punishment. It was considered to be the gravest of sins to kill a Brahmin. Only a priest could partake of the sacrificial Soma and eat the remains of the sacrifices, for no one else was regarded holy enough to eat the divine leftovers.
Initially, a person became a Brahmin on the basis of his knowledge of the Vedas. In time, the Brahmins began interpreting laws to their own advantage to maintain their privileges. And because of this unassailable social and moral authority, they were unchecked.
Thus, according to the Brahmins themselves, they were the chiefs of all created beings, entitled to all honour. The Shatapatha Brahmana declares that there are two kinds of divinities: gods and Brahmins who have learnt the Vedas. Only the Brahmins were allowed to read and teach the Vedas and hence monopolised the privilege of priesthood in the later Vedic period. They also established that one was born into a caste, which could not be changed except to be outcaste. This became the common practice, which survives till the present.
Today most Brahmins are engaged in other secular activities. However, only a qualified Brahmin can conduct religious ceremonies. These professional priests are now called Pandit, Bhatt or Shastri. There are several subdivisions within the Brahmin caste. Earlier, the different Vedas were preached by Brahmins belonging to specific gotras. The subdivisions are therefore based on their gotra or on geographic location. Presently there are 1,800 subdivisions. A Brahmin should be able to trace his origin to one of the seven great sages - Kashyapa, Atri, Bharadvaja, Gautama, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni and Vasishtha. Of these seven, Vishvamitra is said to have been born a Kshatriya and later became a Brahmin after performing severe penance.
Geographically, Brahmins are divided into two main groups - of the north and of the south, each of which has five divisions. The categories of the north are Kanyakubja, Sarasvata, Gauda, Mithila and Utkala. Those of the south are Maharashtra, Telinga, Dravida, Karnataka and Malabar. Each group claims to be the highest category. By common perception, Brahmins involved in the funerary rites (see Antyeshti) are considered the lowest category.
Bhuta, Preta, Pishacha A common Hindu belief holds that the spirits of men and women who died with their wishes unfulfilled, wander in the world and haunt the living instead of going to Yamapuri (see Moksha). These spirits can be broadly categorised into three classes: Bhuta, preta and pishacha.
A bhuta is the spirit of a man who died a violent death either by accident, suicide, or capital punishment, and has not had a proper funeral ceremony.
A preta (literally departed, deceased, dead) is the spirit of a dead person before his funeral rites are performed. However the word is more commonly applied to the spirit of a deformed or a crippled person or of one defective in some limb or organ, or of a child that dies prematurely, owing to the omission of ceremonies during the formation of the embryo (see Sanskara). A preta is not necessarily wicked or malicious towards people.
A pishacha is a demon created by a man's vices. It is the ghost of a liar, drunkard, adulterer, criminal, or of one who has died insane. There are many tales and fables about these spirits, describing some as malevolent and others as good-natured and helpful. Spirits are believed to live either at the site of their death or in secluded places. Abandoned homes and peepal trees are two favorite spots.
The Hindus also believe that if a person goes too close to a spirit, or if the services of a professional are employed, these spirits can enter human bodies. The spirit could enter through any of the nine orifices of the body. A possessed person is said to fall sick, die, be unhappy, lose his wealth, or behave oddly.
In such cases an ojha (exorcist), through mystic rites, tries to 'talk' to the spirit inside and asks it to leave. If he knows the identity of the spirit, he asks its family members to perform certain ceremonies to pacify the spirit. This system is still prevalent in some of the parts of India. Diseases and other upheavals are sometimes attributed to the fact that a deceased family member's funeral rites have not been properly performed. To correct this, a tirthayatra Tirtha is undertaken, and proper shradha is performed.
Sometimes, especially during ceremonies, a person is believed to become possessed by the spirit of a deceased family member who is either angry about something, or has come to take part in the festivities. A puja is performed to this spirit. Meanwhile the spirit is believed to be able to predict natural calamities, births and deaths through the possessed person.
Hindus wear talismans, lockets, bangles, and other adornments that are believed to have the power to protect from the gaze of spirits. The recitation of certain mantras is believed to have a similar effect.
The ridding of the effects of the evil eye' is a very popular practice. It is commonly believed that all kinds of illnesses, pains, epileptic fits and handicaps are caused by the 'evil eye', or because one is possessed by an evil spirit Bhuta, Preta, Pishacha. Unless this is nullified, the effects are said to stay. In such cases, no medication is believed to help the patient, therefore other 'remedies' have developed.
A person is said to possess the evil eye if whatever he or she looks upon is harmed. A person with an evil eye need not necessarily be wicked; usually the effect of the evil eye is unintentional. Such people do not have any distinguishing physical feature to set them apart from the rest. However, one or two 'incriminating' incidents from everyday life may doom a person to the detested category of those with the 'eye'. All those believed to be witches, wizards, and beggars are so castigated. If these people look upon any desirable object, it is believed to get ruined.
If a person falls under an evil spell, there are many ways through which it can be broken. Waving a whole chilli over the person and throwing it in fire is another way. If the smoke smells of the chilli, the illness is not attributed to the evil eye or nazar. However, if the smoke does not smell of chillies, it is believed that the person was afflicted by the evil eye, whose spell has now been broken.
Nazar utarna of a more elaborate kind is performed by astrologers or professionals who do it with the help of secret and mystic rites. At times, a lemon with four or five chillies tied together, or a piece of stale unleavened bread (roti) are used for the purpose. With the help of mantras, the effects of the evil eye are. They are then either thrown away or left at a crossroad. Therefore, most people are very particular about avoiding these objects when they spot them lying at a crossroad, for fear of catching the eye if they step over them. At times these chillies are also hung on the front door to shield the house from the evil eye.
Good-looking children, young boys and girls, brides and grooms, are considered most susceptible to the eye. Small children are generally made to wear special, protective charms and lockets. Eyeliner (see Kajal) is applied to their eyes and a small black dot (kala tika) to their foreheads. This is believed to mar their beauty and make them unappealing to the evil eye. Charms like bits of pottery from a burial ground, the dried foot of a tortoise, the tooth of a crocodile, a bristle from the tail of an elephant, a tiger's claw, or a talisman with magic mantras inscribed on it are all popular. Some people even give ugly names Namakarana to their children
Nazar Utarnaas a pre-emptive measure against nazar. When a north Indian bridegroom leaves for his bride's house, his face is always covered with a screen of flowers, as a camouflage against the evil eye. When he arrives at the bride's house, the mother of the bride performs a ritual for the groom Arati to nullify the effects of any nazar acquired on the way. So too, a bride's mother-in-law performs the same ritual for her when she first enters her in-laws' house.
Nazar is also said to affect healthy domestic animals, trees in blossom, a good harvest or fine houses. Stone slabs inscribed and engraved with letters, characters and figures are often set up at the village boundary to safeguard the inhabitants and their cattle and crops against sickness, epidemic and disease caused by nazar. To protect their homes from the eye, women often draw mystical designs on the threshold. Black mud pots with fierce faces drawn on them are also hung on the door of It is believed that if the malefic effect of the first look is neutralized, subsequent glances will have no effect. All these devices are believed to catch the effect of the evil eye before it affects the crops, the building, or the beings they protect. It is believed that only the first look is deadly, and once its effect is neutralized, subsequent glances will have no effect. Dhrishtamani (eye beads) are used as an indicator of the evil eye. These beads are strung together and worn by children. It is believed that if the child falls under an evil spell, the necklace breaks or the beads change colour. Rudraksha beads are also used as charms, either strung into a necklace or tied on a thread and worn on the body.
Time. It also signifies the eternal supreme spirit Brahman. It is closely connected with the concept of salvation (see Moksha) as fate (kismat). It is also a name for Yama, judge of men and god of the netherworld.
Kal as time is immensely important as all ceremonies and occasions are performed at a time carefully calculated to be 'auspicious'.
It is believed that if, while performing a rite, a man does not mention the lunar day, month, fortnight and the occasion, he will not reap the benefit of the rite.
Time is said to have existed even before creation. It is believed to be the source of primordial water and the progenitor of the creator. It has no beginning and no end and is like an ever-rolling wheel. There are various mythical divisions of time, such as yugas, mahayugas, manvantaras, kalpas and mahakalpas. According to the theory of the yugas, one human year (360 days according to the lunar calendar) is equal to one day in the life of the gods. One year of the gods is equal to one day in the life of Brahma, called a kalpa. A hundred years of Brahma is the life span of one Brahma, after which he dies and a new Brahma is created by the Supreme Being.
Time has also been divided on the basis of mathematics and astronomy. According to one theory, a solar day or vara is divided into 60 ghatikas (of 24 minutes each), a ghatika is divided into 60 pals, a pal into 60 vipalas and a vipala into 60 pratipalas. A pratipala is the smallest division of time and is equivalent to about 0.006 seconds. Both Shiva and Vishnu are regarded as forms of cosmic time.
The term kal is also used for fate (kismat). Fatalism is a popular doctrine which states that actions performed in a former life predefine events in the next (see also Moksha).
Destruction is also associated with kal. A particularly grim saying goes: "Vinasha kale viparita buddhi" - When it is time for someone's destruction, his fate makes him behave irrationally, with disastrous consequences.
Application or concentration of thoughts abstract meditation, the act of joining or harnessing.
Yoga is defined as that state of mind in which the individual soul (atman) unites with Brahman, the cosmic soul. The purpose of yoga is the joining of mind and body in order to achieve perfect unity, leading to moksha, the final concentration of the spirit and its 'escape' from the cosmos.
The system of yoga, as now known, is attributed to Patanjali whose Yogasutra (5th century AD) is still the final authority on the subject even though later commentaries by Veda Vyasa and many others have been written on it.
Today, the yoga system of training is intellectual as well as moral. Before beginning training, these 10 virtues are to be cultivated within oneself:
1. Non-violence (ahinsa); 2. Speaking the truth (satya); 3. Not stealing (assteya); 4. celibacy (brahmacharya); 5. Disowning Pranayam.Yoga possessions (aparigraha); 6. purity (sucha); 7. contentment (santosha); 8. fortitude (tapas); 9. study (svadhya); 10. Devotion to god (Ishwar-pranidhan).
After practicing self-control as defined above, the student is ready for the first of the two stages of yogic training. The preparatory stage consists of asana (posture), pranayama (breath control) and pratyahara (withdrawal of senses from their object). The second stage comprises of dharana (establishment), dhyana (concentration) and samadhi (profound meditation).
Asana, or sitting down in a particular pose (there are 84 poses enumerated), is the beginning of yogic studies. The five most important postures are Padmasana, Bhadrasana, Vajrasana, Virasana and Svastikasana. These poses, most of that need training to achieve, are basis on which a person can practice meditation. Apart from their spiritual value these postures help in treating or curing many ailments. Pranayama, or the act of stretching the breath and bringing it to its original rhythm, consists of puraka (filling of the body with air), kumbhaka (holding it) and rechaka (releasing the breath). The effect of pranayama is improved health and freedom from disease. Its purpose is peace, pacification, enlightenment and tranquillity.
Pratyahara is detachment from worldly objects. It is a state of mind in which a person is unmoved by feelings of either sorrow or joy. The next stage involves dharana, or establishing a stable state of mind by concentrating and retaining breath for long intervals; dhyana, or deep and abstract concentration; and then samadhi, which means contemplating an object so intensely that one loses all sense of self and can finally achieve the status of a true yogi. Samadhi has two sub-stages, sampragyata and asampragyata. A yogi who attains asampragyata samadhi dissolves at death into natural elements and is not reborn (see also Moksha).
Apart from Patanjali's system, yoga also adopted other means like incantation and magic to achieve its aim. The most important of these are
Hatha: a technique employed by traditional dancers, which results in extraordinary mind-and-body co-ordination.
Mantra: the muttering of Mantras in meditation.
Laya: reintegration of the mind with the cosmic soul by the practice of breath control.
Bhakti: reintegration through love and unswerving devotion to a chosen deity.
Jnana (gyana): reintegration through knowledge.
Karma: reintegration through action, or doing one's duty and fulfilling one's obligations as a human being to the best of one's ability.
Raja: when the yogi loses all sense of self and mental agitation is stilled. This is the highest form of yoga.
Training in yoga is a very elaborate process. It involves the practicing of various postures (which take the major part of the day), controlling the breath in a prescribed way, concentration on a deity (sagun) or on infinity (nirgun).
Yoga also involves a controlled diet. Various texts prescribe the ideal food for yogis: barley, gruel, milk, buttermilk, fruit, roots, and grain, oil cakes and barley water. In addition to strict dietary control, many yogis subject themselves to endurance tests. It is a very common practice among yogis to bury themselves or stay in water for days on end. There are also yogis who are known to have stood on one foot for several years. Such a strenuous system of training helps an ordinary person achieve a balanced mind and body and encourages spiritual growth.
The physical and psychological benefits of yoga have made it acceptable not only to Hindus but to Jains and Buddhists. The powers that a true yogi possesses are Yoga tremendous. He can become invisible at will, can stay suspended in mid-air, can dart through space with the speed of light, can still the heartbeat for sometime and can perform many other acts that seem miraculous. All this can happen only through excellent control over the nervous system.
While true yogis aim for the liberation of the soul, others practice yoga to attain peace or simply to improve their general health. There are many yogic centres in India to teach such lay students, while advanced spiritual seekers need to find and be accepted by a proper guru. Yoga and its origin are believed to date back to pre-Aryan times.
Gotra A term applied to a clan, a group of families, or a lineage - exogamous and patrilineal - whose members trace their descent to a common ancestor, usually a sage of ancient times.
A gotra is of immense importance to a Hindu for it shores up his identity. All Hindu ceremonies require a statement of the gotra. A devout Hindu speaks out his gotra and pravara every day in the morning. Gotra also comes of use during the performance of the rites of passage or sanskaras. People of the same gotra (sagotra) are not allowed to marry, to prevent inbreeding. At weddings, the gotra of the bride and the groom are proclaimed aloud to establish that they are not breaking this socially ordained genetic precaution. Marriages between certain gotras are also not allowed; for instance, marriages between those of the Vasishtha and Vishvamitra gotras are n